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Animal language are forms of non-human animal communication that show similarities to human language. Animal communication may be considered complex enough to be called a form of language if: the inventory of signs is large, the signs are relatively arbitrary, and the animals produce them with a degree of volition (as opposed to conditioned instincts). Animal communication can also be evidenced through the use of lexigrams (as used by chimpanzees and bonobos) in addition to signs. While the term "animal language" is widely used, researchers agree that animal languages are not as complex or expressive as human language. Some researchers, including the linguist Charles Hockett, argue that there are significant differences separating human language from animal communication even at its most complex, and that the underlying principles are not related. Accordingly, linguist Thomas A. Sebeok has proposed to not use the term "language" for animal sign systems. Facial expressions should not be considered a language. Marc Hauser, Noam Chomsky, and W. Tecumseh Fitch assert an evolutionary continuum exists between the communication methods of animal and human language. ==Aspects of human language== The following properties of human language have been argued to separate it from animal communication: *Arbitrariness: there is (usually) no rational relationship between a sound or sign and its meaning (e.g. there is nothing intrinsically "housy" about the word "house"). *Discreteness: language is composed of small, repeatable parts (discrete units) that are used in combination to create meaning. *Displacement: languages can be used to communicate ideas about things that are not in the immediate vicinity either spatially or temporally.〔 *Duality of patterning: the smallest meaningful units (words, morphemes) consist of sequences of units without meaning (speech sounds morphemes).〔 Also called Double articulation *Productivity: users can understand and create an indefinitely large number of utterances.〔 *Semanticity: specific signals have specific meanings.〔 Research with apes, like that of Francine Patterson with Koko (gorilla) or Allen and Beatrix Gardner with Washoe (chimpanzee), suggested that apes are capable of using language that meets some of these requirements such as arbitrariness, discreteness, and productivity. In the wild chimpanzees have been seen "talking" to each other, when warning about approaching danger. For example, if one chimpanzee sees a snake, he makes a low, rumbling noise, signaling for all the other chimps to climb into nearby trees. In this case, the chimpanzees' communication does not indicate displacement, as it is entirely contained to an observable event. Arbitrariness has been noted in meerkat calls; bee dances show elements of spatial displacement; and cultural transmission has possibly occurred between the celebrated bonobos Kanzi and Panbanisha. Human language may not be completely "arbitrary". Some research has shown that almost all humans naturally demonstrate limited crossmodal perception (e.g. synesthesia) and multisensory integration, as illustrated by the Kiki and Booba study. Other recent research has tried to explain how the structure of human language emerged, comparing two different aspects of hierarchical structure present in animal communication and proposing that human language arose out of these two separate systems Claims that animals have language skills akin to humans however, are extremely controversial. As Pinker illustrates in his book the "The Language Instinct", claims that chimpanzees can acquire language are exaggerated and rest on very limited or specious data. The American linguist Charles Hockett theorized that there are 16 features of human language that distinguished human communication from that of animals. He called these the design features of language. The features mentioned below have so far been found in all spoken human languages and each is missing from at least one animal communication system. * Vocal-auditory channel: sounds emitted from the mouth and perceived by the auditory system.〔 This applies to many animal communication systems, but there are many exceptions. Ex. An alternative to vocal-auditory communication is visual communication. An example is cobras extending the ribs behind their heads to send the message of intimidation or of feeling threatened. In humans, sign languages provide many examples of fully formed languages that use a visual channel. * Broadcast transmission and directional reception:〔 this requires that the recipient can tell the direction that the signal comes from and thus the originator of the signal. * Rapid fading (transitory nature): Signal lasts a short time.〔 This is true of all systems involving sound. It doesn't take into account audio recording technology and is also not true for written language. It tends not to apply to animal signals involving chemicals and smells which often fade slowly. Ex. A skunks’ smell, produced in its glands, lingers to deter a predator from attacking. * Interchangeability: All utterances that are understood can be produced.〔 This is different from some communication systems where, for example, males produce one set of behaviours and females another and they are unable to interchange these messages so that males use the female signal and vice versa. Ex. Heliothine moths have differentiated communication: females (only send) send a chemical to indicate preparedness to mate and males (only receive) cannot send the chemical * Total feedback: The sender of a message is aware of the message being sent〔 * Specialization: The signal produced is intended for communication and is not due to another behavior.〔 Ex. Dog panting is a natural reaction to being overheated and exercised, but is not produced to specifically relay a particular message * Semanticity: There is some fixed relationship between a signal and a meaning.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Animal language」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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